“We Didn’t Warm the Planet” –Rhiann Peterson

Wazzup, Y2K, Dubya, Dude where’s my car today?
Brokovich, Tivo… let’s me watch my favorite shows.


Moulin Rouge, Kathie Lee, now Regis and Kelly,
Weakest Link, Fear Factor, Zoolander is not an actor.


Low Rise Jeans with Muffin Tops,
Pink, Lil Kim, Maya, Aguileria on your Ipods

9/11 was very scary, David Gest married Liza Minelli
Holy Ring!, and accusations of R. Kelly

CHORUS
We didn't warm the planet.
It was always warming,
Since the world's been turning.
We didn’t warm the planet.
No we didn't heat it.
But we tried to beat it.

Bush Admin, American Idol Host Brain Dunkleman,
Seacrest, David Blane conquers the ultimate test.


Sk8er Boi, Lavigne, and Yao Ming

MJ, Old School, Lord of the Rings – so cool!
Governator, Chapelle, Aiken’s the real idol, can’t you tell?


Red Sox, Got any Tater Tots?
And Queer Eye For the Straight Guy

CHORUS

Napoleon Dynamite, Super Size Me starting fights
Big Mac, McGriddle, Can’t I just have a little?


Jenny Craig, Mountains and Penguins
OK Go, Just Say No


Hurricane Katrina, Martha, Youtube and Suduko.
Borat, Bad Day, Sunshine-yay!

Cheney, Dream Girls, 24
North Korea making war.

CHORUS

Bass and Harris coming out,
Crocs and myspace fading out.


Fifth Graders, Rehab, and eyeliner,
Facebook, R and R, Bye Barker.


We didn't warm the planet.
But when we are gone
Will it still warm on, and on, and on, and on...?

Eating, abusing, and using in America

We didn’t start the fire
But it started exceeding
When we kept on feeding
We didn’t start the fire
No we didn’t want it
Now we cannot stop it

Facebook, Mickey D’s, Freshmen 15, TV
Myspace, Value Menus, Poor economy

Video Games, Processed Foods, Super Size Me, Youtube
Safety Measures, Chocolate Pleasures, No more trampolines

Jerry from Subway, Artificial fish filets
“Fast Food Nation,” Third world starvation, and Type II diabetes

We didn’t start the fire
It was always twisting
The way we see things
We didn’t start the fire
But the superficial notoriety
Is diminishing social piety

Body Image, Diet Pills, Liposuction, and “The Hills”
Counting Calories, Bulimia, and America’s Next Top Model

Paris Hilton, Reality shows, Lindsay Lohan, Brand name clothes
30 second abs, hydroxycut, Protein shakes, to lose that gut

Fashion shows, Cocaine, Anorexia, Lil Wayne
Hollywood, Newport, Beverly Hills, Divorce Court

We didn’t start the fire
It is socially affecting
and needs correcting
We didn’t start the fire
No we didn’t expect
The countless desires to be perfect

Amy Winehouse, Shopaholics, Rehab centers, all symbolic
Bankruptcy, Credit Debts, Foreclosures, and cigarettes

Market crash, real estate and rapidly growing unemployment rates
Obese, starving, and drug addicted people dying every day, what else more do i have to say?

We didn’t start the fire
But when we are gone
Will it still burn on, and on, and on...

Synopsis

The overall theme of this song follows the idea of image vs reality. The reality of America is that there is a growing number of health problems related to weight and that people are looking towards the wrong role models to help them cope with their problems. Celebrities and market products like diet pills are all feeding into the superficial life of easily obtainable perfectionism. These celebrities also have an impact on the general public by showing them a life outside of the norm, and many make the mistake of desperately attempting to reach a similar lifestyle. Drug addiction, increased spending on clothes, alcohol, etc. and lowered morals are all side effects of celebrities such as Paris Hilton being modeled after by the youth. From here the song moves on to the real effects of living such a lifestyle such as drug rehabilitation and the economic crisis. American society is both tricked by hollywood and large corporations into believing there is a seemingly easily obtainable perfect life out there for everyone to claim while ignoring the past ideals that were truly virtuous such as hard work and determination. Only by remembering these past ideals will America be able to over come the weight problem and begin to work towards a better and realistic future

Birth Control: 1965

Over more than five decades prior to the year 1965, Margret Sanger concieved the idea of birth control. By the 1930s scientists had a standard for Sanger's dream birth control. Decades later in 1964 feminists protested to be granted the right to use the contraceptive method as well as have it easily accessible. The Supreme Court in 1965 ruled for the first time that married couples had the constitutional right to purchase and use contraception. Griswold vs. Connecticut was a milestone case that granted privacy for men and women.




http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/filmmore/fr.html
http://www.ppav.org/images/Birth_Control.pdf

Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh was born May 19, 1890 and died September 2, 1969. Over the course of this Vietnamese Communist Revolutionary’s life he served as prime minister from 1946 – 1955 and President of The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). Following Minh’s schooling, he became a teacher for a short period and then became a sailor which gave him the opportunity to travel to many different countries. Minh settled in Paris in 1917 where he began to read books by Karl Marx initiating his interest in communism. In December, 1920 Minh became one of the founding members of the French Communist Party. Like other members of the French Communist Party, Minh had been inspired by the Russian Revolution. In 1924, Minh traveled to the Soviet Union where he put his beliefs down on paper in a letter to his friend, “it was the duty of all communists to return to their country to: make contact with the masses to awaken, organize, unite, and train them, and lead them to fight for freedom and independence.” To avoid the French authorities, Ho relocated to China on the Vietnam border where he organized the Vietnam Revolutionary League. On September 14, 1920, the Japanese army invaded Indochina and because Germany already occupied Paris at the time, the French decided to surrender to Japan. Ho Chi Minh and other nationalists decided to capitalize on this opportunity to rid Vietnam of any foreign control and so formed the Vietminh under General Vo Nguyen Giap. The organization relied on guerrilla warfare to fight against the Japanese. The Vietminh were given military aid by the Soviet Union and, following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, by the United States as well. After the atomic bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Vietminh were able to remove Japanese influence from their country. In September, 1945, Minh announced the formation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. However, without the Vietminh knowing, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, at a meeting at Potsdam, had already decided that the country would be divided into a northern half, under the control of the Chinese, and a southern half, under the control of the British. Following World War II, France attempted to regain control over Vietnam. In January, 1946, Britain removed its troops and China left Vietnam in a trade for the promise France would surrender its rights to territory in China. The Vietminh and the French soon began fighting, after France refused to recognize the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. After France realized it would not be able to defeat the Vietminh in a short period of time, the French government attempted to negotiate with the Vietminh, offering to help set up a national government and eventual independence. However, Ho Chi Minh and other Vietminh leaders did not accept, untrusting of the French word. The French surrendered May 7th after a drawn out war, ending in a key victory Dien Bien Phu. The foreign ministers of the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain and France, met in Geneva to form a peaceful solution to the Vietnam situation. Members of the Vietminh opposed the cease-fire agreement because it included a division of Vietnam, however Ho Chi Minh persuaded them, arguing the division was temporary, and that in the General Election, the Vietnamese would elect a communist government to rule, re-uniting Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh was the top leader during Vietnam’s quest for diminishing foreign rule and regaining independence. Although his prediction for the general population in the South to vote for a communist ruler did not occur, Ho Chi Minh was able to create a more independent Vietnam. Without Ho Chi Minh and his organizing of the Vietminh, Vietnam today would be significantly different, possibly still under the control of major foreign powers.

http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNhochiminh.htm

Richard Nixon

In 1968, Richard Nixon was elected as the 37th president of the United States with his running mate Spiro Agnew, governor of Maryland. This was seven years after he proclaimed his departure from politics following his defeat in the 1960 presidential election and the 1962 California gubernatorial election in 1962. However, he began his campaign in 1967. He was appealed especially to the right-winged voters, speaking out against the anti-war demonstrators and the hippie culture. He promised to win the Vietnam War, create a connection with China, initiate control against weapons in the Soviet Union, maintain peace in the Middle East, while lowering the crime rate, improve desegregation, and uphold the economy at home.
One of Nixon’s main endeavors was the Vietnam War. Upon entering the presidency, almost one thousand soldiers were dying per month in Vietnam. In March, he ordered a series of bombings in Cambodia against the Vietnamese. It was considered a success, and large withdrawals of American troops were ordered. He later visited South Vietnam and met Nguyen Van Thieu, the president. He enacted the Nixon Doctrine, also known as Vietnamization, which was the removal of American troops and replacing them with Vietnamese soldiers. However, he later bombed Laos, causing many strikes and protests in the U.S., especially among students. By 1973, all U.S. troops had been withdrawn from Vietnam.
Nixon was a supporter of desegregation, and helped desegregate school districts in the south. In the first years of his presidency, the number of students attending all-African-American schools dropped 52 percent. He also supported the Equal Rights Amendment and gave women more positions in his administration. Nixon also oversaw the NASA’s first flight to the moon. He permitted for the development of NASA’s Space Shuttle Program and placed a call from the White House to the Neil Armstrong while he was on the moon. In 1971, when the Indo-Pakistani conflict broke out, Nixon encouraged peace and a cease-fire and asked the leader of Pakistan to refrain from attacking. He favored the Pakistanis as to prevent India from taking over, as it would strengthen the Soviet Union. Nixon blamed the Soviets for provoking the war among the nations. Eventually, a cease-fire was created, thus creating Bangladesh.
After the Soviet Union and China split, Nixon fixed relations with China as to improve the U.S.’s standing in the Cold War. Eventually, the Soviet Union eased the tension between the nations due to the possibility of an alliance with China. In 1972, Nixon campaigned for presidency and won by a landslide, winning 49 out of the 50 states, losing only Massachusetts and Washington D.C. However, after allegations in the Watergate Scandal arose in 1973, efforts to have him impeached began. Nixon resigned August 9th, 1974.

Barr, Roger. The Importance of Richard Nixon. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, 1992. Print.
http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/RichardNixon/
http://americanhistory.about.com/od/richardnixon/p/pnixon.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon#Wilderness_years

Moonshot (1969)

The moonshot scandal began with the “Space Race”, the international race to be the first nation to launch people to the moon. The main competitors in the race were the United States and the Soviet Union. Sputnik, launched by the Soviet Union, was the first man-made satellite in space when it was launched on October 4, 1957. Several unmanned and “manned” (by animals) satellites were launched by both the US and USSR in the following years. Successfully launching Yuri Alekseyvich Gagarin into orbit for 108 minutes, the USSR became the first nation to put a man in space. The USSR maintained the upper hand in the race as they launched the first 3-person craft into space. After encountering tragedy during test flights, both the US and the USSR continued toward the ultimate goal: putting a man on the moon. On July 20th, 1969, the US Lunar Module landed on the moon, and the United States became the first nation to leave its mark in the moon. Society was now presented with a new view of itself in the grand scope of the universe. People began to question their significance, and the totally non-objective view of earth from space caused nations to realize the quarrels and concerns were small compared to the world. This new view of life was threatened when the idea of moonshot arose. Controversy concerning the legitimacy of the photos taken on the moon spread around the world. There is debate to this day on the moonshot scandal, and plenty of evidence for both sides of the argument.
Sources-
"The Space Race." ThinkQuest. ThinkQuest. 1 Jun 2009 .
"Apollo 11." The History Place. 1999. The History Place. 1 Jun 2009 .

Woodstock 1969

The Woodstock Art and Music Festival was born in 1969. The Aquarian Exposition was set in Bethel, New York on Max Yasgurs 600 acre property. From August 15th to August 18th 32 popular acts played their music. Woodstock was founded by four men: Michael Lang, John Roberts, Joel Rosenman, and Artie Kornfield. Its original purpose was to be a “free” festival with no entry fee. However its popularity reached the two hundred thousand. Because of the massive fan base the founders created tickets to hopefully turn some away. As few refused to pay, most paid the 18 dollar fee that is now equivalent to 75 dollars, fifty years later. The purpose for this festival was to serve as a three day retreat, experience, and unity against the military conflicts. It became a “counter culture mini nation”.
The 32 acts in order of Appearance:
Richie Havens
Swami Satchidananda
Sweetwater
The Incredible String Band
Bert Sommer
Tim Hardin,
Ravi Shankar, (played through the rain)
Melanie
Arlo Guthrie
Joan Baez- (six months pregnant)
QuillKeef
Hartley Band
Country Joe McDonald
John Sebastian
Santana
Mountain
Janis Joplin
Grateful Dead (set ended quickly due to electrocution) (Source: Jeff Peterson)
Creedence Clearwater Revival
Sly & the Family Stone
The Who (began at 4 AM, kicking off a 25-song)
Jefferson Airplane
Joe Cocker
Country Joe and the Fish
Ten Years After
The Band – (Set list confirmed in Levon Helm's book "This Wheel's On Fire")
Blood, Sweat & Tears
Johnny Winter
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (began around 3 a.m. with acoustic and electric sets. )
Paul Butterfield Blues Band
Sha-Na-Na
Jimi Hendrix (After being introduced as the 'Jimi Hendrix Experience' Hendrix corrected the new group's name to "Gypsy Sun and Rainbows." )

http://www.woodstock69.com/wsrprnt1.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock

Watergate Affair

On June 17th, 1972, five men were arrested for breaking and entering into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Hotel. Days later, they, and two others, were charged with burglary and wiretapping. President Nixon and his administration denied any connection to these seven men and their crimes, although the press insisted otherwise. The Washington Post received leaked evidence from an anonymous informant dubbed “Deep Throat.” In 2005, “Deep Throat” was revealed to be William Mark Felt, the former deputy director of the FBI.
The seven were put on trial, five of which pleaded guilty while the other two were found guilty by a jury. However, Sirica, the judge of the trial, read a letter from one of the defendants alleging that the Nixon Administration had been attempting to cover up their involvement with the break in at the Watergate and had also told the accused persons to plead guilty and not disclose any other information about the case. With this information, investigations on the White House began. Nixon accepted the resignation of the seven defendants, but maintained the fact that he was unaware and in no way connected to the crimes.
Archibald Cox was appointed as the “special Watergate prosecutor.” Also, Sam Ervin, a democrat from North Carolina, headed the Ervin Committee against Nixon. Butterfield, a former member of the White House, released information that Nixon’s conversations had been recorded. The tapes were subpoenaed, but Nixon refused to give them up, citing executive privilege and national security. Furthermore, he ordered the Attorney General to fire Cox. Rather than fire Cox, the Attorney General resigned. Cox was dismissed and replaced by Leon Jarwoski.
Nixon was eventually pressured into providing the tapes by the public. As the plot to steal records about a former Department of Defense worker from a physiatrist’s office unfolded, the many charges against Nixon and his Administration led to the passing of three articles of impeachment. Before he was impeached, Nixon resigned from the presidency.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/637431/Watergate-Scandal
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part1.html

Punk Rock

Punk Rock was a subculture and musical genre that spanned the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States in the 1970s. Punk Rock maintained a DIY or Do-IT-Yourself aspect throughout its reign. The style and music was edgy. The songs were breif and fast. Lyrics were often political. The Clash, The Sex Pistols, and The Ramones were icons in the age of 1976. Iggy Pop was the Godfather of Punk. Punk objected the mainstream and served as a non conformist group for those against the wars but not neccessarily "hippies". Punk Rock was an outlet for the youthful generations across three Nations in the 1970s

http://www.fastnbulbous.com/punk.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock

Begin

In 1977, Menachem Begin became the sixth Prime Minister of the state of Israel. Begin was the head of the Likud Party, which was the oppsoing party of the Labour Party. The Likud Party believed that there should be negotiations in peace without territorial compromise and that self-government should be respected in the West Bank as long as a new state is not created. The Labour Party wanted some of the 1967 borders to be altered and was a supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organization. The main government of Israel, Mapai, follows the Labour Party, therefore when Menachem Begin became head of office in 1977, he ended the Labour Party political dominance. One of Begin’s major accomplishments while Prime Minister was that in 1979 he signed a peace treaty with Egypt. Prior to this, Egypt and Israel were on unfriendly terms, which caused much tension between the countries. Egypt was in disagreement about the territories established during the Six-Day War. Begin froze Israeli settlements in West Bank to facilitate the progress of settlements. The only way the Egyptian leader, Sadat, would agree to the treaty was if the state of Sinai was returned to Egypt. In exchange for this promise to make peace, Begin calmly returned Sinai. Both Sadat and Begin received the Noble Peace Prize in 1978 due to their peaceful accomplishment. Begin also made investments in the national resources of Israeli to develop the poor neighborhoods of Israeli and to liberalize Israeli’s economy. Unlike the rebuilding of the peace and communities, Begin devoted his time to terminate invasions that were irrelevant to Israel. In 1981 Iraq invaded Lebanon, causing Begin to authorize Israeli Air Force bombing of the Osirak nuclear plant in Iraq. These actions influenced the Lebanon War in 1982, but Begin went through with these actions for a beneficial outcome. Menachem Begin’s years being Prime Minister came to a close on September 15 1983 because his wife devastatingly died in that year. Without significant explanation, Begin went into seclusion and died on March 9, 1992.

"Menachem Begin." Jewish Virtual Library. 26 May 2009 .

"The Years of Billy Joel's 'We Didn't Start The Fire' - 1964-1989 (Part 3)." BBC Home. 26 May 2009 .

Reagan

Ronald Reagan became the 40th President of the United States on January 20, 1981. On March 30, he was shot by John W. Hinkley in front of Washington DC Hilton Hotel. This life-threatening incident did not interfere with Reagan’s plan for the United States. His goals while President were to stimulate economic growth, curb inflation, increase employment, and strengthen national defense. When Reagan began his term, taxes were extremely high, resulting in a minimal amount of people wanting to work. This decreased production of goods and increased the inflation rate. Under Reagan’s administration, Congress had to pass a tax cut that would lower the income taxes 25 percent by 1984. The inflation rate then decreased 4-5 percent, becoming the most reported increased production and sales in United States history. Reagan also helped redistribute American income and wealth by assault on American labor. In 1981, he fired 12,000 air-traffic controllers on strike. This gave employers the freedom to "permanently fire" striking workers. The unemployment rate rose to 11 percent, but gradually decreased to 6-7 percent by 1984. President Reagan began to increase defense spending, despite the fact that the income taxes had been lowered. Because of this, by the end of Reagan’s presidency in 1989, the federal deficit had doubled. Although Reagan worked constantly on strengthening the United States as nation, he also worked toward the United States regaining global leadership. He viewed communism as evil, therefore his administration first attacked the government of Nicaragua in 1981. The anti-Communist government supporters, the "Contras", were being taken over by the majority of the Nicaraguan people. Until 1985, the United States supported and supplied aid to the Contras. In 1983, Ronald Reagan introduced a proposal for defense against Soviet Union threat. At this time, the entire nation was fearful of the Soviet Union, therefore Reagan was highly respected when he began the Strategic Defense Initiative. It consisted of powerful laser beams that would shoot down enemy missiles heading for North America. Until 1985 when Mikhali Gorbachev became the new Soviet Premier, the US government enforced this system. The SDI did not have to be further used because Gorbachev knew that the only way for the Soviet economy to greaten was if he fixed relations with the United States. Between November 1985 and December 1988, Reagan and Gorbachev met five times. In 1987, both leaders agreed to sign the Intermediate Nuclear Force Treaty. It stated that all countries had to destroy their nuclear weapons. By the end of Reagan’s presidency in 1989, the United States and the Soviet Union were on some of the best terms they had been on in a while. United States citizens now had little to fear due to Reagan. Although Ronald Reagan created problems with the foreign debt, his remaining goals were beneficial for global peace.

"Ronald Reagan." The White House. 26 May 2009. .
"The Years of Billy Joel's 'We Didn't Start The Fire' - 1964-1989 (Part 3)." BBC Home. 26 May 2009 .

Palestine

Between 1947 and 1948, Palestinians evicted from Northern Palestine moved to refugee camps near the Lebanese capital of Beirut. They were not given citizenship upon arrival because it would upset religious balance within the country. In 1969, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) signed the Cairo Agreement, which was intended to regulate PLO involvement within Lebanon. Israel became worried because of the respect the PLO was gaining, and some leaders wanted to push out all Palestinians from Lebanon and Israel into Jordan and force them to form an independent state. On June 4th, 1982, the Israeli ambassador to Great Britain was severely wounded by terrorists, causing Israel to bomb PLO camps in Lebanon. The PLO responded with rockets, and Israel besieged West Beirut. The Israeli government allowed for the UN to supervise as PLO members were evacuated from the besieged city. Only after the United States promised that all Palestinians who remained would be safe did the PLO pull out its forces. Disaster struck when Bashir Gemayel, newly elected president of Lebanon, was killed. Israel moved into West Beirut again, breaking its agreement. Slaughter commenced in the Palestinian refugee camps, and in 2 days, the Red Cross estimated that 3’500 had been killed. Societies were rising up against each other, forever altering their relations and their view of one another.
Palestinians Seize the Achille Lauro (October 7th, 1985)
Four Palestinian terrorists hijacked an Italian cruise ship, the Achille Lauro, in an attempt to force Israel to release their comrades from prison. One of the passengers, an American named Leon Klinghoffer, was shot in the head and dumped into the ocean. The leader of the group, Abu Abbas, denied that his men had killed anyone, but Klinghoffer’s body washed ashore 10 days later, and murder was clearly the cause of death. The terrorists succeeded in holding the ship at gunpoint for 48 hours, but when they could not land in Israel or Syria, they turned the ship back to Egypt, where they surrendered to Egyptian authorities. The four hijackers were taken into custody by the Italians and imprisoned in Italy. The hijacking of the Italian cruise ship shows how decisions that are not well thought through can end in disaster. The terrorists did not take into account the reactions of those they considered to be their allies, and ended up surrendering. This act represents the beginning of the modern terrorist epidemic that now encompasses the globe.
The Palestine Intifada Begins (December 1987)
Beginning in 1967, Israel occupied the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. They gradually began to control the lives of the original Arab and Palestinian residents. The Palestinians were used as cheap labor in the new economy the Israelis were building. The controlling Israelis cared little for the welfare of the locals, heavily restricting their human rights. Finally, in 1987, uprisings broke out when Israeli soldiers expressed undue malice towards civilians. Few were killed in the hundreds of protests, though the Israeli government tried desperately to regain control by force. Strikes were implemented by the Palestinian workers, as well as boycotts of anything made in Israel. The Intifada encompassed many facets of life, including religion, racism, and human rights.
Sources-
"The Palestine Intifada Begins."Great Events- The 20th Century. Volume 9. 1992. Print.
"Palestinians are Massacred in Beirut."Great Events- The 20th Century. Volume 9. 1992. Print.
"Palestinians Sieze the Achille Lauro."Great Events- the 20th Century. Volume 9. 1992. Print.

Terror on the Airlines (1976 and 1988)

In both the 1970’s and the 1980’s, airline terrorism and hijacking became a top threat worldwide. On June 17, 1976, Operation Entebbe began at the Entebbe Airport in Uganda. Air France Flight 139, carrying 238 passengers and 12 crew members, departed from Athens heading for Paris. Shortly after the 12:30 pm take off, two Palestinian members of the PFLP and two Germans hijacked the plane and redirected it to Benghazi, Libya. At 3:15 pm the plane arrived at the Entebbe Airport where four other hijackers waited and demanded the release of 40 Palestinians on the flight from Israel, Kenya, France, Switzerland, and West Germany. If these orders were not followed, the hostages would be killed on July 1st. Jews were further separated from the group. If one was non-Jewish, the hijackers allowed them to depart for their intended destination, however Captain Mical Bacos stated that everyone was his responsibility and he would not leave. Despite this statement, they were forced to divide, leaving 83 hostages in Entebbe. The Israeli government ultimately became involved and approved a rescue plan on July 3rd. By midnight the following day, Israeli forces were in the terminal and shot the four hijackers. The hostages were now free to board the plane, but when doing so, Ugandan soldiers started to shoot. Fire was returned and the hostages flew to Paris on July 4, 1976. Along with hijacking, bombing was a severe concern for air transportation. On December 21, 1988, the Pan American Flight 103 bombing occurred over Lockerbie, Scotland. Thirty-one minutes after the flight took off from London’s Hearthrow International Airport, the plane exploded. All 259 passengers and crew were killed, along with 11 residents of Lockerbie. Because the plane originated in Frankfurt, Germany, investigators know that the explosives were packed into luggage in Frankfurt. It is not fully known why the bombing of Lockerbie occurred and who was responsible. It is suspected however that either Iran or Libya formulated the incident. These suspicions are not random, there are specific reasons for why these two countries may have placed the explosive on the flight. In 1986, an Iranian passenger jet was bombed by an American aircraft carrier the USS Vincennes. It is said that this was an error, but it does not change the fact that all of 290 people on board were killed. It is also an idea that Iran paid the Palestinian Front for the Liberation of Palestine to perform the Pan American 103 bombing. Beginning in 1985, Libya and the United States have had a series of aircraft attacks. When the Abu Nidal group striked Rome’s and Vienna’s airport on December 27, 1985, the United States sank two Libyan ships. Multiple bombings continued until 1986, therefore it is theoretical that Libya may be responsible for the Pan American bombing. Nonetheless, both airplane hijacking and bombing are precautions that flyers had to be aware of in the 1970’s and 1980’s due to the numerous attacks occurring globally.

Operation Entebbe. 26 May 2009 .
"Pan Am Flight 103 Bombing over Lockerbie, Scotland." About.com. 28 May 2009 .

Ayatollolah’s in Iran (1979-1989)

Between 1979 and 1989, Iran was transformed from a monarchy ruled by Shahs to a dictator/theocratic state ruled by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Ayatollah was viewed as a holy man, and sought “purification” of Iran.Killing many people of religious minority, he worked towards a totally Islamic Iran. Life was made very hard and dangerous for those of religious minority, and those of the Bahai faith endured the worst discrimination and nullification of human rights. Members were tortured, ostracized, and murdered. Ayatollolah went so far as to make Iran a theocratic state. Universities were closed, and when reopened only permitted attendance of students who passed a test on the Islamic faith. Ayatollolah had total control of Iran for nearly a decade, and his reign brought tragedy to many. The changes in Iran under Ayatollolah were immense, and far more complex than dictatorship. This dictatorship encompassed racism, sexism, even aspects of communism.
"The Ayatollah Khomeini Rules Iran."Great Events- The 20th Century. Volume 8. 1992. Print.
Viorst, Milton. "Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini." Time. 2009. Time Inc. 28 May 2009 .

The Soviet War in Afghanistan (1979-1989)

Though many believe that the Soviet War in Afghanistan was simply a two-sided war, it was a highly complex and dynamic war involving many countries. Conflict waged for 9 years, from December 27, 1979, to February 15, 1989. The invading Soviet forces supported the Marxist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), who fought against the mujahideen resistance. The resistance gained support from the United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and other nations with high percentages of Muslims. Like the Vietnam War, there was no definite battlefield; rather, there was a lot of guerilla warfare. Over the course of the war, the Soviet losses were above 15’000, the Afghan losses were 2 million civilians, and an unknown number of mujaheddin fighters killed. The war lasted so long because of the nature of the terrain and the opposing forces. While the Soviets were used to traditional, front-to-front fighting, the Afghanis were used to tribal and guerilla warfare. Since the mujahideen resistance was widespread throughout the deserts and remote mountains of Afghanistan, it was impossible for the Soviet forces and the PDPA to ever gain full control of the resistance. The Soviet War in Afghanistan was fought on both sides to promote their form of government. The Soviets and the PAPD wanted to install communism, where the mujahideen and much of the civilian population wanted to promote traditional values and government. As a result of this war, the Soviets withdrew their forces, while the Afghan Civil War continued. The war in Afghanistan was significant to the Cold War because the Soviet Union was attempting to instill Communism in Afghanistan. The democratic and Muslim worlds supported the rebels in the war, either to the spread of Communism or to protect traditional values and government. Society was developing a new set of values, as well as allies. Future wars are affected by the decisions, enemies, and allies made during the Soviet-Afghan war.
Sources-
"Soviet War in Afghanistan." Wikipedia.org. 26 May 2009. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 26 May 2009 .
"Soviets Invade Afghanistan."Great Events- The 20th Century. Volume 8. 1992. Print.
"Soviet Troops Leave Afghanistan."Great Events- The 20th Century. Volume 10. 1992. Print.

Wheel of Fortune 1975

The daytime game show of consonants and vowels was first debuted on NBC on January 6th 1975. Lin Bolen, the head of NBC day time wanted to give the game show lineup more pizazz. She felt that NBC was becoming mind numbing. Merv Grifin pitched an idea to Lin Bolen of a game similar to hangman. Lin was interested in the idea but to make the show even more appealing especially to the woman’s eye she called the pilot of Wheel of Fortune Shopper’s Bazaar. The show over time evolved and became popular on NBC’s daytime lineup. Lin Bolen was praised for her ingeniousness. The year of the premier, 1975, an article was written on how Lin Bolen changed “the landscape of daytime TV with a combination of ingenuity, hustle, and unabashed chutzpah.” Wheel of Fortune was a hit. Although the game show was going strong NBC hit a rough spot where several TV shows were put in jeopardy. To spice things up NBC added the comedian David Letterman to try to bring the network back to life. Wheel of Fortune fortunately escaped the ax which other shows suffered from in 1980 such as Hollywood Squares, High Rollers, and Chain Reaction. Wheel of Fortune went on to be successful. The show continues to be a classic by remaining true to their ways. Slight changes such as host have changed as Pat Sajak took over for Chuck Wollery and Vanna White replaced Susan Stafford as the letter turner. All in all Wheel of Fortune is an ongoing show that has become a large part of America’s entertainment.

Wheel of Fortune Timeline - 1973-1974. 1 June 2009 http://gscentral.net/wof/1974.htm.
History of Wheel of Fortune. 1 June 2009 http://game-shows.chris-place.com/shows/%20.
The History of Wheel of Fortune's Early Years. 1 June 2009 http://www.gameshowmuseum.com/%20.

Sally Ride 1983

Sally Kristen Ride originally form Encino, California is famously known for being the first American women in Space. At a younger age Miss Sally Ride had no intention of going to space but had the goal of becoming a professional tennis player. She graduated in 1968 then went on to try to become a pro at tennis. Once realizing that her chances of becoming successful at tennis were slim to none, Miss Ride attended Stanford University. Not letting anything slow her down Sally Ride came out with a B.A., B.S., and Masters’ Degrees at the age of 27. Now as a Ph.D. candidate she searched for a job in astrophysics. Fortunately NASA had been looking for astronauts and that is where it all began for Dr. Ride. Selected out of 8,000 people Sally Ride was one of the few women chosen for the space camp in 1977. At NASA, Ride engaged in a wide spread of training: parachute jumping, gravity and weightlessness training, water survival, radio communications and navigation. With her knowledge Ride was able to contribute to fights to space. In 1991 and 1982 Dr. Ride was the communications officer for the space shuttle Columbia. She also joined a team which designed the remote mechanical arm, a device used to set up satellites. Her shining moment didn’t come until 1983 when it was marked in history as Dr. Sally Ride became the first American Woman in space. The craft she boarded was the Challenger (STS-7). She was on the Challenger (STS 41-G) for eight days on her second flight in 1984. In total Dr. Ride has been in space for over 343 hours. Dr. Sally Ride continued to be impressive in the astro-world. She organized the “Office of Exploration” she also wrote an article “Leadership and America’s Future in Space” to promote a bright future for astronomers and astronauts. In 1987 Ride left NASA for retirement and became, “a science fellow at the Center of International Security and Arms Control at Stanford University.” As a role model for young women who are interested in mathematics and sciences Dr. Ride taught as a Physics Professor at the University of California. Ride is an example of a determined woman doing more than thought possible. As a leader in the science community she has opened up possibilities for women to make things happen.

Sally Kristen Ride. 1 June 2009 <http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/96may/ride.html>

Heavy Metal

Rising in the sixties and seventies heavy metal rock music was huge in America. Originating blues-rock and psychedelic rock, heavy metal adds a thick and powerful sound which is distorted with an amplifier. Heavy metal is also characterized with having long guitar solos, emphatic beats, and extreme volume. The lyrics of the music tend to be connected to masculinity and machismo. Bands like Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, and Twisted Sister were iconic in the age of the "metal". Attracting "metalheads" and "headbangers" to their shows. In the eighties, metal was at it's prime. With glam metal bands such as Motley Crue, metal became a commercial force. Because of its popularity and commercial aspects metal was able to send messages to the mind of the youth throughout the Cold War.

http://www.anus.com/metal/about/history.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal

Suicide: Destructive Cults 1978

During the late 1950s, a “doomsday cult” of Christian denomination was founded by James Warren Jones in California. The “Peoples Temple” was originally for the sick and homeless, but spread to become one of the first interacial congregations. When the government started to investigate their alleged cures for cancer, heart disease, and arthritis, Jones moved his congregation. Eventually, he relocated to Jonestown, Guyana. Reports of pretend suicides and possible forced membership prompted Congressman Leo Ryan to visit and inspect the temple. Some members decided to leave the temple at this time, but as they attempted to, armed temple gaurds arrived at the airstrip and killed Ryan, three members of the press, and one who wanted to leave Jonestown. 11 more were wounded. Afraid of consequences, 914 members drank grape juice laced with cyanide and sedatives and died. Others escaped to the jungle. This group suicide killed 918 adults and children, the greatest single loss that was not the cause of a natural dissaster or war.


http://www.religioustolerance.org/dc_jones.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples_Temple

Foreign Debts 1989

When Reagan’s presidency terminated, the national deficit was tremendously high. The debt within the countries has always been an ongoing problem; however the Reagan Administration held high responsibility in creating the night debt ratio in United States history. Taxes were cut and defense spending swelled, but spending was not cut elsewhere. Prior to this in 1983, the United States obtained a surplus of 89 billion dollars with other countries. On July 3, 1990, the Commerce Department reported that the foreign debts had increased by 25 percent to 663.7 billion dollars. Many assets were borrowed and owned by 1989. The United States assets abroad held value of 1.266 trillion dollars and the foreign assets in the United States were 1.797 trillion dollars. Due to the rise in foreign investments, the Commerce Department states that the foreign investments in the United States escalated by 22 percent to 400.8 billion dollars in 1989. When Reagan began his presidency in 1981, the debt/GNP ratio was 33 percent. By 1989 when his years as President were over, the debt/GNP ratio was 53 percent. With his high percentage of debt, Ronald Reagan left the United States needing much skill and many years to secure the foreign debt.

"Foreign Debt of the U.S. Rises." 3 July 1990. 26 May 2009 .
"The Years of Billy Joel's 'We Didn't Start The Fire' - 1964-1989 (Part 3)." BBC Home. 26 May 2009 .

Homeless Veterans

In July 1987, the Homeless Veteran’s Reintegration Program was authorized. The U.S. Department of labor attempted to resolve the growing problem of veterans of war living less than fortunate lifestyles as a result of spending time serving their country. “The purpose of the Homeless Veterans' Reintegration Program (HVRP) is to provide services to assist in reintegrating homeless veterans into meaningful employment within the labor force and to stimulate the development of effective service delivery systems that will address the complex problems facing homeless veterans.” The program allowed for a variety of services to be accessible to homeless veterans. The program is “employment focused” and gives veterans the employment and training they need to re-enter the labor force. Job placement, training, job development, career counseling, and resume preparation, are among the provided services. Clothing, temporary and permanent housing, medical/substance abuse treatment, and transportation are also provided through this program. The HVRP also provides an outreach component which includes veterans who were once homeless, speaking out to others in similar situations and providing direct counseling when needed. More specific branches of this program such as the Homeless Veterans’ Comprehensive Assistance Act in 2001 have also been added on in recent years. The initiation of the HVRP was vital to the U.S. military because it provided further security to those who service the country and allowed assistance to for those who needed help in reintegrating into American society and the real world.

http://www1.va.gov/Homeless/
http://www.dol.gov/vets/programs/fact/Homeless_veterans_fs04.htm

AIDS 1981

In 1981 a new virus had been reported by the center of disease control on June 5th. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome also known as AIDS claimed its first recognized victim in New York City, his name was Nick Rock. At the time not much was known about AIDS besides that fact that it destroys the immune system allowing secondary illnesses to take advantage of the bodies weaknesses. A common sickness found in those that had AIDS was pneumocystis jiroveci which happened to be found in many homosexual men. Because of the relation with homosexual men AIDS had originally been called GRID, gay related immune deficiency. Eventually scientist came to realize that about half of the men with GRID were not homosexual and that is when the virus acquired the name AIDS. Further research led doctors to see that AIDS existed before 1981. A blood smear confirmed that a Bantu man in Belgian, Congo died in 1959 of what was thought of as an unknown illness but the antibodies of the AIDS virus was found in his blood. Mysteries of AIDS triggered more research to find where this virus originated. The earlier stage of AIDS is HIV, human immunodeficiency virus. This virus contains microbes which are capable of moving form on species to another. It is hypothesized that chimpanzees are the culprit for introducing HIV to the human race. AIDS was monitored closely by the CDC as they watched and increase of men, women, and babies with destroyed immune systems. In 1982 not only did America have the growing problem of AIDS. Fourteen other countries had confirmed cases as well. Another issue was the transmission of the disease amongst blood transfusions as well as children who were being born to mothers with HIV. Even though in 1985 donated blood was being scanned for HIV there were forty one false negatives, unfortunately ultimately giving the recipient of the blood HIV. The awareness of HIV increased amongst the public with several published articles by the CDC but also the deaths of several celebrities made it clear that AIDS was serious and deadly. Rock Hudson announced that he had been infected with HIV July 25th 1985 and died that October. Celebrity deaths continued with Robert Reed, Amanda Blake, Anthony Perkins, and Dack Rambo.

AIDS: A Brief History. 1 June 2009. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~ghale20r/classweb/2page.html

The History of AIDS. 1 June 2009 . http://fohn.net/history-of-aids/

Crack Epidemic

Between 1984 and 1990, a crack epidemic affected the United States. This epidemic included a surge in number of crack houses, cocaine use and addiction, arrests for cocaine related crimes, murder and robbery, and homelessness, especially in major cities such as New York, Baltimore, Miami, Houston, and Chicago. It began in the early 1980s when a smokeable form of cocaine, known as crack, was developed in the Bahamas. Due to the surplus of cocaine powder, the price of crack dropped 80 percent, but remained very profitable for dealers to manufacture. The high purity of the cocaine that was readily available often made the users become addicted in a very short amount of time. A highly addictive substance readily available at a low price set the conditions for an epidemic.
By the late 80s, higher quality cocaine was available at the low price of 100 dollars per gram. In 1987, there were 55,200 crack related hospital admissions, an increase of 110 percent from the past year. It was considered an epidemic in all but four states. The epidemic prompted rumors and investigations surrounding the CIA and the Contras, a Nicaraguan rebel group. Reports stated that the CIA under the Reagan Administration had drug ties to the Contras and trafficked cocaine to the U.S. David MacMichael, a CIA agent from the time, revealed that ties to drug cartel were unintentionally made when supplying support for the Contras rebels. Later, in 1986, Reagan admitted that the rumors were true, and there had been some cocaine trafficking when the rebels were especially low in funds. A series of hearings proposed by Senator John Kerry and Senator Chris Dodd found that the U.S. State Department had paid over 806,000 dollars to known traffickers for “humanitarian assistance.”

http://www.motherjones.com/politics/1998/08/total-coverage-cia-contras-and-drugs
http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/special/9712/index.htm

Bernie Goetz

On December 22, 1984, Bernard Goetz later known as the “subway vigilante,” shot four black men in a Manhattan subway car under the reasoning that the men threatened him and tried to rob him. The general public both praised and criticized Goetz’s actions. Three years after the shooting, Goetz was acquitted of attempted murder and assault but convicted of criminal possession of an unlicensed weapon and spent 250 days in jail. This event held significance for several aspects of society at the time. The firing of Goetz’s unlicensed revolver wounded three teenage African Americans severely and left another paralyzed for life but also triggered criticism regarding racial discrimination and mass media controversy over city crime rate and the limits of self defense. Soon after becoming a nationwide symbol, Goetz’s lawyer Barry Slotnick said Goetz wanted “to go back to being an anonymous stranger in New York.” (Toronto Star Article)Anti-Goetz demonstrators chased his car following his court verdict. Goetz later put out the statement, “If you’re injured, paralyzed or whatever while committing a violent crime against me, that’s not my fault.” The “subway vigilante” played a leading role in reevaluating societal views on criminal justice and racial stereotypes in America.

http://www.heroism.org/class/1980/goetz.htm

Hypodermic Needles on the Shore

During 1987 and 1988, a large amount medical waste and garbage washed up onto a 50 mile stretch of the New Jersey shoreline. Officials tried to determine the source of the waste, and were forced to close all of the beaches, thus diminishing local tourism and economy. The local tourism industry suffered a loss of more than one billion dollars in revenue in that one summer. The origin of the waste was eventually determined to be the Fresh Kills Landfill of Staten Island, New York. The state of New York was forced to pay for the cleanup of the shores along with an additional one million dollars for pollution damages. The Syringe Tide had a lasting impact on the environmentalist movement. The New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program (HEP) founded the Short-Term Floatable Action Plan in response to the waste. The plan established an effective four step process to prevent future waste from collecting on the New Jersey shores, and resulted in the reopening of many beaches to the tourists. In later years, other programs such as the Ocean Dumping Act and the Medical Waste Tracking Act would cite the Syringe Tide as an event that necessitated these acts.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe_Tide
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Dumping_Act

China's Under Martial Law

Martial law is the system of rules that takes effect when the military takes control of the normal administration of justice. On June 4, 1989, at Tiananmen Square, the Chinese army enforced this law and proceeded to massacre many democratic protesters. In late 1985 through late 1986, students protested in Beijing and Shanghai. Since 1978, Deng Xiaoping, leader of the Communist Party of China, led a series of economic and political reforms, implementing a market economy and relaxing the strict system set up by Mao Zedong. However students and other reformists believed China had to further reform its political policies. They were concerned with the amount of control the Communist Party of China still had. After the death of Secretary General Hu Yaobang, known for wanting excessive reform, students met at Tiananmen Square to both mourn his death as well as protest their believed necessary changes. Students carried banners with such slogans as, “Law, not authoritarianism,” and “Long Live Democracy.” Chinese authorities did not take well to public organized demonstrations expressing dissatisfaction with their rule. On May 20, the Chinese leadership imposed martial law on the Beijing Municipality under the impression of using force to clear the square. U.S. officials however, hoped to resolve the opposing students and Chinese government peacefully. A meeting on May 23, between President George Bush and Wan Li, Chairman of the Standing Committee of China’s National People’s Congress, shows no record of the student organized protests ever being mentioned. Soon after, Wan left the U.S. earlier than expected and on May 27, publicly endorsed the order of martial law by the Chinese government. Soldiers and tanks were then sent to take control of the city. Many citizens actively opposed the military entry into Beijing. Protesters burned public buses and used them as roadblocks to impede the process of the military’s process. The PLA, People’s Liberation Army, attempted to clear the streets using tear gas, rifles and tanks. The assault began at 10:30 p.m. June 3, when armored personal carries and troops surrounded the square. Firing then broke out into the crowd. Students looked for refuge in torched buses only to be pulled out and continuously beaten by soldiers. Students attempting to leave the square were also beaten with heavy sticks. Rickshaw drivers went into the battle to pick up the wounded and brought them to hospitals. Soldiers were also killed by rioters throwing burning debris into their vehicles. Students were witnessed to be asking the question “why are you killing us?” Tanks continued to roll into the square, crushing vehicles and people beneath their treads. By 5:40 a.m. June 4, Tiananmen Square had been cleared. This event significantly effected both the Chinese government as well as the country’s relations with other foreign powers. The Chinese people will forever remember the massacre and the overreaching authoritative control of its government that allowed such an incident to take place. Following the deaths of democracy protesters, the U.S. placed sanctions, suspended high-level contacts, and halted transfer of military technology to China, forever tainting U.S.-China relations.

http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB16/documents/#d7

Rock and Roller Cola Wars 1984

“Coca cola went to town, Pepsi cola shot him down.” The battle amongst the two popular soft drinks Coke and Pepsi traces back to 1970’s. The Cola Wars was a series of advertising campaigns which was initiated by the “Pepsi Challenge”. The advertisement was to prove that Pepsi was preferred over Coke. Pepsi had the idea to approach this task by involving the public which is smart because the public is the audience and the main reason the people at Pepsico go to work in the morning. The method that Pepsi used is similar to that of Nehi used in the 1930’s. The blind taste test would reveal the truth. After the test and the data was gathered in Dallas-Ft. Worth, “Half the Coca-Cola drinkers actually prefer Pepsi.” As a strong opponent in this war Coca-Cola would not accept these results without defending their good name. A year later in 1976, after the “Pepsi Challenge” had spread all the way to Michigan Coke persistently followed up on the Challenge and established that the test was inaccurate because to identify the different brands of cola in the blind taste test Pepsico used two glasses of soft drinks which were labeled with the letter M and Q. M was Pepsi and Q was Coke. Coke gave evidence to show that the results of the “Pepsi Challenge” were invalid by doing the same thing as Pepsi, a blind taste test with the same letters but both gasses were filled with Coca-Cola. Even though both cups had Coca-Cola the public of Dallas-Ft. Worth consistently choose M over Q. Coke proved that it is not exactly that the public prefer Pepsi over Coke in the “Pepsi Challenge” but that the public prefer the letter M over the letter Q. The counter campaign of Coca-Cola did not stop the Pepsico. In 1977 the “Pepsi Challenge” decided to go nationwide. Pepsico used the spread of their campaign to tell the audience that not only did certain areas in America prefer Pepsi but now Pepsi was nationally preferred. The advertising campaigns continued through the 1980’s. Celebrities were used to sell the products as Michael Jackson appeared on the face of Pepsi and Julio Iglesias on that of coke. Coke also used Bill Cosby to point out that Coke is and always will be the original cola.
The Rock and Roller Cola Wars appeared again in the 1990’s making it apparent of the continuous battle between the two cola companies. The booming industry makes it mark showing that something as small as a soft drink is so apparent in the lives of our nation.



Grace, Rodger M. Pepsi Challenge’ Gives Coke Cause for Worry. 1 June 2009 . http://www.metnews.com/articles/2006/reminiscing042006.htm

Conflict in Chicago 1981

In 1980 Ronald Reagan became President. He came into office with promises to restore powers to the states. However Reagan did more evil than good when he cut back on programs for the poor, angering activists black and white alike. At the same time, disappointed black voters of Chicago helped in the election of Chicago’s first female mayor, Jane Byrne. However Byrne was also a disappointment to black voters and the poor. At Cabrini Green 14,000 people lived with poverty, crime, gangs. Byrne moved to the Green as a sign of support. After this she elected three white people into CHA board who manages the green. They showed little concern. The angered black voters organized a voter’s registration drive for unregistered black people. Their efforts were enough to take Byrne out of office and elect a new mayor.

http://genealogytrails.com/ill/cook/janebyrne.jpeg
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/24_housing.html

The Bakke Case and Affirmative Action (1978)

Many believe that Affirmative Action went too far in the attempt to atone for the sins of slavery and discrimination. The Bakke case brings the advantages and disadvantages of Affirmative Action into the light. Allan Bakke had been denied entry to university two times, and claimed that the cause was Affirmative Action. True, the number of African Americans attending colleges had doubled, but he could have been denied admission for any number of reasons. Bakke brought his case before the Supreme Court, and was granted admission to university. This event is significant because it illustrates the fact that white Americans now had to compete with blacks to get jobs and education, something they never had to do before.
Sources-
"The Bakke Case and Affirmative Action." PBS.org. 23 Aug 2006. Publilc Broadcasting Service. 28 May 2009 .
Graham, Hugh Davis. The Civil Rights Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Print.

The First Black Southern Mayor (1973)

Maynard Johnson, an African American living in Atlanta, Georgia, was elected Mayor of Atlanta in 1973. He was the first African American to be elected mayor of a major US city. His term was revolutionary; he hired women and minorities, and puts an end to discriminatory business in the city. During his term he constructed an airport, Hartsfield International Airport, and was re-elected for a second term. He made affirmative action a priority in Atlanta. American society was slowly growing to view African Americans as total equals, respecting them for their talents and intelligence.
Sources-
"The First Black Southern Mayor." PBS.org. 23 Aug 2006 . Public Broadcasting Service. 28 May 2009 .

Civil Rights: Blacks Define Themselves

To shape a life style of their own, African Americans, as a culture began to define what it truly means to be black. Offended by the white culture, African Americans wanted nothing to do with the Caucasian life style. A fashion that arouse in the African American culture was the Afro. Having a greater significance than just a hair due, the afro symbolized power, specifically “Black Power”. Blacks began to find pride in their heritage and their background. African Americans who had “Black Power” were proud of who they were and fully embraced their black culture. Many African Americans were giving themselves a voice. In 1966 Muhammad Ali, a famous boxer, was drafted for the Vietnam War. Ali chose not to serve in the army. For this he was unable to box and his title was taken from him. But despite his loses Ali remained a supporter of antiwar. Activist of the time sought for change and to involve diversity in education as well as politics. Yearning for a broader spectrum of studies students of Howard University, “demanded courses in black studies and culture.” In 1972 in Indiana the National Black Political Convention consisting of 8,000 people strived to recognize growing concerns in America such as unemployment, poverty, and other national issues. The African American involvements made an apparent difference as the elected black officials in the next ten years were doubled.

Blacks Define Themselves. 1 June 2009 .Blacks Define Themselves. 1 June 2009 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/ 19_nbpc.html.

Boston School Desegregation

In Boston Massachusetts, Judge Arthur Garrity Jr., believed there was a recurring pattern of racial discrimination taking place within the Boston public schooling system. In 1974, Garrity’s ruling found the schools to be unconstitutionally segregated. As a result, any school with more than a 50% white student body was required to be balanced by race. The Boston School Committee however, continuously disobeyed the ruling and it took the support of the Supreme Court for Garrity’s ruling to be upheld. In one case, the entire junior class of the poor white, South Boston High School would be bused to Roxbury High School, a black high school in the ghetto. Half the sophomores from each school would attend the other and seniors could decide which school to attend. For the next three years, Massachusetts state troopers were stationed at both schools. A small percentage of both groups of students showed up on the first day of the plan. Parents protested, whites and blacks were entering through different doors and an anti-busing movement was formed. Many questioned the academic advantage of “jumbling” these two schools together. Attendance of those enrolled in Boston school districts fell from 100,000 to 40,000 within these years. Protesters felt Garrity was biased since his own children lived in a white suburb and were unaffected by his ruling. Protests soon turned violent. After a black attorney was murdered by way of being stabbed by a lance-like American flag, black teenagers retaliated by causing a white man to crash his car and then continued to pull him out of the car and beat him with rocks putting him in a coma. A white student was stabbed at Roxbury High School and the white residents swarmed the school, trapping the black students inside. Roxbury High School closed for a month and when it opened had metal detectors installed and over 500 policemen guarding a mere 400 person student body. Garrity took control over the school himself in 1975 after firing the school’s principal. He then went on to further his desegregation to include all grades down to first. 6,000 marched against the plan in October, 1975. When the segregation experiment ended in 1988 the damage had already been done. The Boston school district had significantly shrunk. This event displays how extreme some U.S. officials were willing to be in order to restore what they saw was constitutionally right. Garrity’s decision to combine whites and blacks in the Boston school district put lives of every student at risk, angered the general public, and forever left its mark as the percentage of white to black students in the public schools fails to coincide with the percentage of population of white to black children in the area. Civil rights during these times were a priority to many, however the results from Garrity’s ruling helped question if, in some cases, it was necessary for the line between white and black to remain present.

http://www.4littlegirls.com/boston.htm

How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 252-264.

Civil Rights: Civil Rights Today

Equality remained as a hot topic in the late 1980’s to the 1990’s. In 1995 the Million Man March was lead by Louis Farrakhan to increase the amount of African Americans registered to vote, to promote involvement of African Americans in black communities, and to ensure the presence of the “Safety Net”, which are government plans that aid the poor. “Since the sixties, two significant civil rights trends have emerged.” One trend is to rid discrimination amongst several groups: homosexuals, Latino groups, immigrants, and farm workers. The other trend was to focus on the racial relations. “The beating of a Los Angeles Motorist, Rodney king, in March 1991 led African Americans to riot after the accused police officers were acquitted.” Within that year Thurgood Marshall left the court as the Supreme Court justice. Marshall’s replacement, Clarence Tomas, was closely advised during confirmation hearings. The murder of James Byrd was the aftermath of a hate crime in 1998. The disgusted Americans were evidence of racial tolerance improvement however there still was discrimination amongst races. To develop better racial relations in the new millennium there were thoughts of having a diverse work environment. In 2003 Colleges considered race as an aspect for admitting a student ultimately providing a diverse experience for students. The University of Michigan had efforts to have a diverse environment by specifically looking for people of different cultures who are familiar with diverse environments. The racial spectrum has widened according to the census of 2000. That year people had the chose to refer to themselves as being multiple races.

Civil Rights Today. 1 June 2009http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/26_today.html

Operation PUSH

Operation PUSH, first known as Operation Breadbasket, was founded in 1965 by Jesse Jackson. In 1965, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference targeted Chicago with their beliefs. Jesse Jackson involved himself with the Chicago ministers in order to help advance employment opportunities for African Americans. During the foundations of the Civil Rights Movement, Operation Breadbasket was one of the leading civil rights organizations in Chicago. By 1971, Operation Breadbasket evolved into Operation PUSH for the reason that Jackson divided with SCLC. Every week, Jackson would hold stimulating meetings at the Hyde Park headquarters. The purpose was to thrill its supporters, being both black and white, so that their group would continue its success. Prior to Operation PUSH, blacks held minimal importance in the workplace in Chicago. The goal of Jackson was to have major companies hire more African Americans and for businesses to extend their connections with the black communities. The PUSH-Excel program was established in 1976 to help inner-city teenagers realize that they have a purpose, encouraging them to stay out of trouble and work hard. Since 1980, Operation PUSH’s accomplishments have been inconsistent. In the South Side headquarters, Reverend Willie Barrow administered activities, but the entire operation declined when Jackson reached for presidency. Jesse Jackson did however institute a greater program of Operation PUSH when combining it with his National Rainbow Coalition in the mid 1990s. This became the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition. The Coalition reintroduced the economic value and commenced “The Wall Street Project” which encouraged primary financial firms and Fortune 500 companies to enhance hiring and inner-city investments. For about 40 years, Operation PUSH was one of the most significant Civil Rights organizations. Without the push and pressure Jesse Jackson and the members obtained, many inner-city and African Americans would have waited much longer for work and importance in cities.
RainbowPUSH Coalition Today:

Ralph, James. "Operation PUSH." Encyclopedia of Chicago. 2005. 28 May 2009 .

Riots in Florida

In 1979, Arthur McDuffie was killed by police officers after a high-speed pursuit. McDuffie, an African-American insurance salesman, and former military police officer and United States Marine, was being chased for traffic violations and a driving with a suspended license. According to police officers, he lost control of his motorcycle and attempted to flee on foot, but they “subdued” him. He suffered numerous skull fractures from contact with a blunt object and died after four days in the hospital.
All four officers involved went to court with charges of manslaughter and tampering with evidence. They were put in front of an all male white jury and Janet Reno, the chief prosecutor. An officer who testified in exchange for immunity claimed that McDuffie was beaten until he was motionless, and then they used the police car to damage the motorcycle, so that they could claim his injuries were from when he lost control of his vehicle. Other officers verified this statement and gave more accounts of the violence committed on McDuffie. However, all officers were acquitted.
African-Americans in the Miami area expressed their outrage by protesting on May 17th, 1980, but it eventually turned into a riot. Cars were burned, homes and businesses were robbed, and people were beaten, stabbed, and shot, while the National Guard tried to maintain order. Over the course of three days, 17 people were killed and over 1000 were arrested. There were over 100 million dollars in damages.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/23_florida.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_McDuffie